Would you just freeze in time halfway there? Meaning even ypur brain will not be able to perceive anything.

Newton was the one who really pulled everything together in a fundamental way. Barrow (his advisor) developed a lot of Calculus as did Fermat and Descartes before him and Barrow suspected the fundamental theorem of Calculus but it was Newton who proved it (to the standards of the day) and that was the key to confidently solving differential equations. While the problems of differentiation and integration are what we think of as Calculus that's not really what it's about, it's really about solving differential equations and that's what Newton advanced and then applied to problems of physics of the day.

You are correct, gravity / escape velocity is the primary control and the replies indicating that the presence or absence of a magnetosphere are the primary control reflect a common misconception (e.g., see this post).

There's two things Newton did here, one was understanding that things accelerate under a force. For the apple to start falling there needed to be some force acting on it and that force was equivalent to the mass of the object times it's acceleration, which, it put another way, was that the apple was accelerated towards the earth by an amount equivalent to the force acting upon it divided by it's mass.

The second thing was gravity. So what force was acting upon that apple? It was the force of Gravity! That force was proportional to the masses of the two objects divided by the distance between them squared.

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Side note: notice that when you take the force of gravity and divide it by the mass of the object being acted upon, the apple, to find out how it's accelerated, the mass of the apple will cancel out by division; and so it doesn't matter of the gravity of earth is acting on apples or bowling balls, the force is the same!

The first is important because under the Teleological framework things had an innate motion towards some ideal state and from this we can start to appeal to faith to divine what things want to move towards. Under Newton's laws things only move when acted upon by some force being applied to them. The second is important because it defines gravity of massive objects as the force that moves objects towards the ground on earth and what keeps the planets orbiting the sun and the moons orbiting their planets rather than the hand of God or some other ideal. Why is this important? It means we can predict natural phenomena rather than appealing to prayer. We can predict the tides, and predicting the tides was really really useful in an age where shipping was economically critical.

Before Newton there were some attempts to predict the tides but they didn't have anywhere near universal success and so people might as well appeal to faith or superstition as they might anyone else who is only sometimes correct. Newton was reliable in his prediction to a point it became hard to ignore... but we've wandered off OP's question here.

"If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." - Newton

This is not correct though. Good counterpoints are Venus, which has no intrinsic magnetic field, only a relatively weak induced one, and yet still has a thick atmosphere or Mercury, which has an intrinsic magnetic field and effectively no atmosphere. This comes up a lot on AskScience and there are numerous threads considering the relative role of gravity, active volcanism, and magnetospheres for keeping planetary atmospheres, e.g., this thread where various posters lay out the details and highlight that gravity / escape velocity is the dominant factor in whether a planetary atmosphere is maintained, this specific comment by one of our panelists addresses this misconception directly.

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Excellent question since, of course, the word can mean both. In this case, it is neurons which release dopamine. Note that they aren't just releasing it randomly into a tissue or into circulation, but releasing it directly at a targeted neuron, such as a GABA-releasing neuron of the dorsal striatum in a fine motor control circuit. A more comprehensive explanation of these pathways would probably require a smarter person to explain it.

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There is no such thing. Speed is always measured by assuming something is stationary

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> His mathematical equations/proofs showed that the same force that made apples fall to the earth was what made the planets move

I wouldn't say "what makes them move"--he understood momentum, and what gave planets their momentum is not defined by his gravitational theory. (I would assume he described the initial velocity as divinely created.) Gravity just describes why they orbit.

Hmm there is risk as arthritis can be induced by collagen, CIA(collagen induced arthritis). Collagen applied on the skin is not broken down by the stomach, the immune system also breaks down collagen.

Is this why I just want to stay in bed all day?

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The bit about Aristotle is not quite correct, that's a very Newtonian way of describing his theory. He was working within a Teleological framework, basically the idea that everything has a goal, an essence, that it's moving towards. Part of this is that like things move towards like things, so it's the 'earth' element in things that makes it move towards the earth, not due to some force but because that's where it's goal is.

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No, but vitamin c is needed for collagen crosslinking, a process that strengthens your collagen. Deficiency leads to scurvy.

Yes. In chemistry, the general term is "redox reaction" where one subastance is reduced while another is simultaneously oxidized. With fire, oxygen is reduced, while carbon, hydrogen, sulfer, etc are oxidized to produce compounds like CO, CO2, H2O, SO2, etc.

Other redox reactions that you might consider similar to burning without oxygen use other reactive oxidizers like Chlorine, Bromine, Fluorine, etc.

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Vitamin C is a necessary cofactor for one of the initial steps in synthesizing collagen. People with vitamin C deficiency (ie., scurvy) develop swollen gums and other signs of damaged connective tissue as a result of impaired collagen synthesis

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