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Followed by someone giving a simple to understand analogy

"It's like rubbing a balloon on your head to make a piece of plastic float!"

These are great explanations, thanks

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As other have explained, it's the moisture in the air is what creates a haze. So, yes colder temps do generate a more visually "crisp" look. You'll also notice that sounds carries much further, this is also because there is less moisture in the air to slow down the sound.

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To answer your question in the simplest way, every difference in dosage form is a separate New Drug Application (NDA) in the USA. The process is usually called a license application or Marketing Authorization elsewhere, but the processes are broadly similar. In one NDA, you could say, “we are going to offer this in 5, 10 and 20 mg capsules…” and you’d need to justify why those are the sizes.

You can reference information from one application in another. If the same impurities were in a capsule and oral liquid for a drug, and both hit the bloodstream the same way, you don’t have to repeat the tox study on the impurities.

I should point out that in the days when everything sent to an agency was on paper, forests trembled at the size of these filings. Now they are electronic and are even bigger.

What about those waves you see from heat. I bet that effect is involved too

Summer sun also creates convection currents that distort light.

So both dry and cool (which often go together) make clearer views.

Every method? No, that just wastes money.

Standard practice is to have a "target product profile" which guides development. The mode of delivery is typically established in advance. Since clinical studies are very expensive, it is normal to initially focus on one method of delivery. After initial market introduction, additional methods could be added to expand the market.

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No. If at all possible the oral route is preferable. Patients prefer this, easier to sell more etc. But the drug itself will determine the delivery route other wise. If the drug cannot be absorbed through the gut it may require injection. If this is not a life saving drug, say it is an antihistamine for example people are not going to be willing to take the time and expense for an injectable drug like that unless for some specific reason someone really needed it.

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In that case, I think that pharmokinetic and pharmodynamic information is used to determine how the drug interacts with the body. As I understand, the pharmokinetics looks at how the drug gets into and around the body, which involves dissolution of pills in the digestive system or movement within the body after injection. The pharmodynamics looks at how the drug interacts in the body with the target of the drug, such as binding to receptors of interest that affect the disease of interest. So the mode of drug delivery that is developed is determined to maximize the effective drug delivery to where it is needed in the body.

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There are (at least) a couple of different factors at work that can affect how clearly you can see a distant object.

The first is 'stuff' in the air. Dust, pollen, water (or ice). These can all change with the weather (and the seasons). The behavior of humidity - the amount that air can carry, and whether it condenses out - depends strongly on temperature.

The second is the air itself. Non-uniform air temperatures between you and those distant mountains affect the density of the intervening air, and result in weak, transient lensing effects. As you noted, it's the same phenomenon that results in mirages or heat shimmer--or which causes stars to 'twinkle' at night. Greater variations (and sharper gradients) in air temperature, coupled with greater turbulence in the air, make for worse seeing.

How is that different than saying, “dry air is more clear”? And wouldn’t that be so regardless of temperature?

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I didn't assume that at all? I was asking about how the approval process was tied to methods of delivery during the R&D

Your question seems to assume that the drug is submitted to regulatory authorities for approval with no thought to how the patient will take the drug. A drug is submitted for approval for a specific mode of delivery to the patient. If the drug is developed for oral delivery using a pill, the submission is for oral delivery using a pill.

Yes, they typically plot out to l=10000, but all the power out there comes from point sources (if one doesn't clean those away). I used 360°/l, but if I use 180°/l the ACT foreground cleaned spectrum becomes too faint to be detectable at 2.9 arcmin.