I would like to point out many women can have 45 chromosomes and people with 47 or 48 aren't unheard of either - Turner's and Klinefelter's.

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What did they write?

To my understanding you're trying to get it absorbed into the bloodstream, which is why you aim for muscle which is highly vascular tissue

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You’re not trying to get your vaccine into the muscle cells themselves. All the action happens in the draining lymph nodes.

Interesting, I didn't know about this! Do you have any more detail on that?

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Honestly doctors don’t give shots. Nurses are much better trained and I would trust them over a doctor

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Difficult but not impossible. So with uncountable attempts at reproduction every generation you eventually get viable offspring with differing numbers of chromosomes that can branch off into their own species.

It’s a large numbers game.

It's also important to know, that in the case of resveratrol, you can't just look up the literature and get an understanding of how effective it is. There was a fairly large scandal in the field around 2012 which was closely followed by the watchdog site retractionwatch. Now while one researcher publishing fraudulent data does not mean the entire field of research is wrong, it does mean each and every paper needs to be carefully scrutinized to see how heavily it relied on background assumptions made by papers that were later shown to be false. In this case in particular, with the researcher publishing over a hundred of papers a year some highly sited that left a pretty big impact. I can't say for sure how strongly this was felt in the longevity research community, but in the field of cardioprotection, which I was in at the time, it was a big deal.

Even a fairly recent review, which is by in large well and fairly balanced regarding the literature still cites papers from this researcher' publications and doesn't mention that aspect of the field's history at all.

more simply: nothing but time and chance. Viruses regularly mutate to become infectious to a different proximal host in a process called Zoonosis. It's a large part of why the current avian flu pandemic is so scary- historically, our worst flus are mutated avian variants!

Very interesting, thanks.

it has, but not really surprisingly the answer is:
1 - plant make protein for defense

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2 - plant happy

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3 - Florida or whatever happens randomly

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4 - Ricin

/u/fruticosa explained here how genes end up being duplicated and suffer mutations throughout a timeline.Ricin comes from a unfortunate chain of events driven solely by evolutionary pressure and the randomness of nature.

The A chain of the protein, the one which inhibits the ribossomes, which causes it to effectively be toxic. It, among other similar ribossome-inhibiting proteins, has originated from a presumably defense-related protein that existed in an early angiosperm species.

It underwent it's own mutations over the ages, ended up being, in some of the higher plants, a gene that is duplicated several times and expressed differently in multiple phases of plant development, remember, not necessarily that means it has any function.

In some, however, it ended up becoming associated with another chain, the B chain. The B chain itself has originated from simple sugar-binding proteins, which basically any living being has in it's cytoplasm. Through the odds and evolutionary pressure, it ended up turning into a galactoside-binding chain.

That B chain, associated with A chain, is what is up with ricin. The galactoside-binding chain, once in our bodies, will bind with cell surface sugars, which therefore leads the cell to take the whole protein inside via endocytosis. Ribossomes are key parts of protein synthesis, their disruption by the A chain will lead to death in eukaryotic cells.

basically, two early proteins that were not really related at all went through numerous mutations, "fused" and originated it. At later evolutionary points, the dimer gene itself went through duplications and more modifications, coding for toxin-like proteins we see in some plants, but that's not the point.

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>unfortunately we can build a spacecraft

I believe this is a typo, s/can/cannot .

An Orion-class vehicle can carry with it lots of mass to protect it from relativistic dust collisions.

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I don't think we're on the same page here. I'm talking about using a tec fan with a portable propane heater instead of using batteries to run its internal fan, not using tec fans as a solution for all heat distribution requirements. You use tec fans with Mr Heater style propane burners and micro stoves as often used for winter camping. If you're running your buck stove in the living room and want to distribute the heat to the other end of the house, tec fans aren't going to do it.