That’s an interesting difference in practice. If a patient needs an IV bolus of a medication, does the physician also do that or is it delegated to a nurse?

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> During reproduction, the chromosomes have to line up in order for them to produce offspring.

Just to be clear, chromosomes do not line up during reproduction. They only pair during meiosis, which is the production of sperm or eggs, but not during fertilization or embryonic development (mitosis). So chromosome number has absolutely zero effect on whether two individuals can produce offspring together, but may affect the fertility of their offspring.

This confusion over when chromosome pairing happens leads to a lot of the misconceptions around chromosome number.

Without food abundance none of that medicine would have helped much. All these medical marvels you brought up were invented after agriculture. Imagine what the life expectancy was for disabled/sick people prior to an abundance of food.

Also, 32 years old is old enough to have reproduced and pass on genes. Life expectancy was much lower prior to agriculture.

The two unfused chromosomes from the parent with 46 will usually both pair with the fused chromosome that came from the parent with 44. This is called a trivalent, instead of the usual bivalent that forms in meiosis. The pairing actually usually goes just fine since the genetic content is not changed and these chhromosome fusions usually involve chromosomes that only had one arm before (acrosomes). What this means is that it's not as random as all that. There is still a chance that separating the chromosomes can go wrong, but the offspring of people who've had a fusion of this type are usually not infertile, just reduced fertility sometimes. Often not even by much and many, many cases are believed to be undiagnosed since there's no "symptoms."

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If the 44 chromosome people survive though, it would likely be without procreating with 46 chromosome people, which would cause them to gradually adapt differently from the 46 chromosome people and eventually become a separate species.

Perhaps you almost saw a dozen birds die this week, but before death they became sickly and were picked off by predators. Perhaps others died right out in the open and were dragged off by scavengers before you saw them.

A dozen dead battery farmed chickens, on the other hand, would go nowhere and could likely infect many other chickens before being discovered counted and disposed of by a farm worker.

When my bird watcher friend finds dead birds on her hikes, she inspects them, then if they show signs of infection she bags and labels them to send to a research station. She's amazing at spotting a small dead bird in tall grass and I wouldn't have spotted any of the ones she did on our last hike.

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The voyager spacecraft are well above the Solar escape velocity so they will be traveling on out of here.

There are toothbrushes like this that play the radio when you brush your teeth. If you put a wobbly fork to your teeth in space wouldn't you still hear it that way?

Van-der-walls forces could not be more different from hydrogen bonding.

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Huh. So do you know if it will eventually slow all the way down, stop, and start returning towards the sun? Or will some other gravity source capture it before then?

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Because you don't want something immunogenic circulating in your bloodstream. That's how you get cytokine release syndrome, shock, and dead patients. You want localized immune reaction somewhere safe (like an arm), where immune cells can be recruited to from blood , tissue, or lymph; to do their thing.

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Fertility is one of many factors in the evolutionary equasion. In evolutionary time human populations have been very scattered At the center of a slightly isolated population this lineage reproduces normally. On the periphery of the isolated population there are more miscarriages, but adequate reproduction for introgression of useful genes into the population. It's probable Neandertal/Sapiens hybrids and Denisovan/Sapiens hybrids were significantly less fertile, yet their genes made it into our pool. Surprisingly the ancestral trees of individual genes are often very different than the species tree.

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Seriously?! I had no idea! Is there an article I can read on that? I've taken basic immunology, but that wasn't covered.

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But even if we had the speed, would anything survive passing through the kupiter belt or oort cloud? Or are they less dense with debri than I imagine?

Because you don't want inflammation response to vaccine speading through your blood stream and causing inflammation all over your body. That's how you get cytokine release syndrome, go into shock, and die.

You want a vaccine to cause a localized inflammation reaction (somewhere harmless, like an arm), recruit immune cells there, have them sample the antigen (vaccine), find ones that bind to the antigen, cause their proliferation, and as a result develop immunity to the disease. Your immune cells have a mechanism to be recruited out of the blood, lymph, and surrounding tissue and to get to the location of inflamation. Vaccination utilizes this mechanism. Vaccines are also specifically tested to work only through their specified method of administration, whether that's intramuscular (like most vaccines), nose spray (like flu mist), oral (like rotavirus), or skin administration (like BCG). Spraying regular flu vaccine into the nose won't work, just like giving it orally. It's formulated to elicit correct immune response only when it gets properly administered. The reason for this is more complex immunology.