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Your coworker is wrong. The thermal camera measures temperature based on the amount of radiation (I) it senses:

I = s e T^4

Where T is temperature in Kelvin, s is a constant (5.67E-8), and e is emissivity, a value between 0 and 1. For most objects, emissivity is between 0.9 and 1, so the camera assumes an emissivity in that range and solves for T using that equation (T = (I/(s e))^1/4 ). However, metals have low emissivity, often in the range of 0.3 or lower!

It wouldn't freeze. Endotherms regulate their body temperatures by modulating their metabolisms. Not to mention that modern elephants don't live in cold places. Ancient elephants (mammoths) were highly insulated. Metabolism can be modulated a lot. There are small "warm blooded" animals that have a body temperature above 37 C in the summer, but hibernate during the winter, dropping their body temperatures to below 0 C. They don't freeze and they certainly don't die. There is even some evidence that hibernation contributes to longevity.

How do baby elephants not freeze to death? They are the size of a dog…

Just to follow on from the discussion re. accommodation space. The current layout of tectonic plates means that very little accommodation space is being created in the continental realm. So the vast majority of modern rivers are reworking, eroding and transporting sediment into the marine realm.

For accommodation space to be created in the continental realm, the continental part of a tectonic plate needs to break apart, known as a rift basin. The East African rift system is one example we can study today. Go have a look on Google Earth and you’ll see the alluvial fans, fluvial systems, sabkhas forming etc

There have been periods in Earth’s geological history where continental rift basins formed everywhere and vast continental sediments were deposited. This happened throughout the Permo-Triassic when the supercontinent Pangaea broke-up. Across Europe these sediments are known as the Buntsandstein or New Red Sandstone. These sequences are usually followed by marine sediments called the Muschelkalk when the accommodation space fell below sea level.

Over time these sediments were buried to a depth where they were lithified but not beyond the point where they are metamorphosed. Staying in Europe, if it wasn’t for the Alpine orogeny (mountain building event), these sediments would have stayed buried. Instead they have been uplifted and exposed. Once you see one Buntsandstein-Muschelkalk sequence, you’ll start to recognise them everywhere!

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This is the answer.

I have used thermal cameras in my line of work work a part in an oven.

And I have literally been able to see the reflection of my own body when I pointed the thermal camera at the metal walls. That's likely the issue here. An emissivity issue.

The coworker's explanation sounds like a misunderstanding of how convection works. Just because air is flowing, doesn't mean it's cooling down the metal. Flow doesn't equal cooler. You need to remove the thermal energy somehow. If it's a closed system the heat isn't going anywhere.

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Another factor in favour of the big pool: at the same rotational rate, the big pool will have less shear because the difference in speed between two points a given distance apart is smaller than the same two points in the small cup, so I would imagine less energy would be lost to turbulence

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Is the PCB in use or is it off?

The operating temperature of any PCB is going to be higher than it’s environment because the electrical currents create heat through the part. So if you’re measuring 105C at a powered on PCB, then I would argue the chamber itself is not actually 105C, but lower.

When you say the chamber was set to 105C is it regulating the temperature with a thermocouple that is actually measuring the temperature? If so where is that thermocouple? And where is the heat source? Is there one heat source or multiple? Is the chamber being heated by driving heated air through it? Also how insulated is the chamber?

It seems likely that the air in the chamber isn’t actually 105C. This could be for a lot of reasons, like if the chamber isn’t insulated very well or if the heating element is too small or the heat transfer from the element to the air isn’t very efficient or if the feedback loop that targets a temperature setting has a bias from poor temp sensor placement or calibration. Any or all of these things could lead to inaccuracies in the chamber temperature. And it’s very likely that you don’t actually reach thermal equilibrium no matter how much you “soak” if the chamber is losing heat energy, which it almost certainly is.

Think about a 3D printer, the bed temperature is regulated with a thermocouple that is attached to the bed. If you set that to 105C bed temperature, the air in the enclosure is absolutely not going to be 105C no matter how long you soak for. Because the thermal losses from the chamber are too great.

My guess is that this is what’s happening to your chamber. I’d put an old fashioned thermometer in there with no PCB and see how close the air temperature is to the setting after a 30 minute to one hour “soak”

Edit: if you want to tell me more about the chamber (ie answer some of my questions about how it’s heated) I can help get more specific. Also knowing what the chamber exterior is made of would be helpful.

> Are there any types of sedimentary rock that form in terrestrial environments, and what are the processes?

Yes. For this, it's better to discuss this in terms of depositional environment instead of the exact rock type as the latter are non-unique. Common terrestrial depositional environments are related to rivers or lakes. The types of rocks deposited by those systems will depend a lot on the system in question. For rivers, it can be quite varied. In rivers that are close to a high relief sediment source (e.g., a mountain range), conglomerates (representing river that were carrying gravels) are common. Moving down the system, grain sizes generally fine, so sandstones to silstones would be common. Most rivers will also have large amount of mudstones/shales associated with them as these represent flood plain (overbank) deposits. Lakes are a little less varied, primarily being represented by shales/mudstones, but you can even get carbonates in lakes as well. As you can see, rock types are non-unique, e.g., you can get mudstones associated with fluvial (river), pluvial (lake), or marine settings. Similarly, deep water clastic systems produce rock types and deposits that look pretty similar to terrestrial fluvial systems, but are deposited offshore. There are some types of deposits that are pretty unique to terrestrial environments, e.g., paleosols, loess, ergs, etc., but in terms of raw rock type, these would still be kind of generic mudstone, siltstones, or sandstones broadly. They would largely be distinguished on the basis of primary features. E.g., Erg deposits that become sandstones will tend to have massive crossbeds, like the Navajo Sandstone.

> Generally it seems that lithification happens in marine environments, the rock is then uplifted into the terrestrial environment, where it then erodes back to the sea. Does lithification generally not happen on land because the accumulation of new sediment is not enough to replace or overtake sediment loss to erosion?

So the focus on lithification vs deposition is kind of misplaced. Regardless of whether we're talking terrestrial vs marine, lithification is not happening at the surface, it's only after burial. Depending on location and the progression of environments, marine deposits could be lithified after being buried by terrestrial deposits (during regressions, i.e., sea level falls) or terrestrial deposits could be lithified after being buried by marine deposits (during transgressions, i.e., sea level rise). Thus, it would be better to move your focus away from lithification in this context.

The main difference between marine and terrestrial environments is accommodation space, i.e., the difference in elevation between the current surface of the Earth in that location and the maximum height to which sediments could be deposited (usually sea level, but not always). Effectively, accommodation space is a hole. For marine environments, there's pretty much always accommodation space. For terrestrial environments, accommodation space is more rare and will be typically localized where there is some process driving subsidence, i.e., a force making a hole. If there's no hole for sediment to fill, it will "bypass", i.e., it will keep moving until it reaches an area where it can fill a hole. This ends up meaning that there are lots of areas in terrestrial environments that are not conducive to sediments depositing. But there definitely are areas where sediments can (and do) deposit in terrestrial environments.

Batteries have basically always been able to store more energy than caps. That's what makes supercaps compelling. They store more than caps, but are faster than batteries.

It depends on the un-stated specifics of OP's question. But generally, the more volume the fluid in the cylinder has (ie: the larger the cylinder), the smaller the percentage of the fluid that is in contact with the edges of the cylinder. So a smaller volume would have a greater proportion of its fluid dragging against the edges slowing the liquid.

Lead-acid batteries are charged as soon as they are filled with sulfuric acid.

This is a reason people with bigass car stereos add capacitors. Large sudden power draws like amps driving large bass hits can cause equally large drops in system voltage. The capacitor act to "stiffen" the system by providing reserve of current that can be drawn and replenished much more rapidly than a battery can. This keeps the voltage more consistent.