Most of them are I/II phases studies (dozens to low hundred participants), only two at phase III, of which one is terminated (no desirable effects) another is expected to end in 2023. A decent amount of them were not even completed in 2019. So no, nothing was tested on humans at the time they decided to use if for covid. "Tested" means completed phase 3.

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That is quite a loaded question. I don't think I can give a valid answer within the limits of a reddit comment, but what I can do is recommend an amazing book called International Communication: Continuity and Change by Daya Kishan Thussu. It doesn't directly answer your question, but it gives you a great background in how all of what you say tie together in the world and what impact it has. It should give you all the knowledge you need to extrapolate your own answer to the question.

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RGB pixels light up the the red and the green to make yellow.

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That's all true, but that doesn't mean bears don't hibernate. All these articles call it hibernation.

> how do I explain evolution to a new learner as succinctly as possible?

As in biological evolution? When there's competition for resources in an environment the species that are best able (fit) to compete for those resources and raising offspring within the environment end up spreading their genes more than those that don't. Over a long period of time, this results in what we recognize as evolution.

> is there a current evolutionary trait that's been selected for in humans?

Even the fastest changes in species like humans takes many generations to show itself in a population and even longer to become dominant (Unless the selective pressure is extreme). Saying any certain trait (even obvious ones like lactose tolerance) is too speculative and subject to a rapidly changing environment in a biological context.

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First :Crusade does not make only evil but create trade with muslim world. With that we found some Lost greak philosophers. The most important was Platonism and Platon whose was lost for Western world(Western Christianity knew some Philosophers as an aristotle, but some became forgotten. ). In fact, it is the discovery of neoplatonism kick off Renaissance.

Second :between 1150 and 1300 was full blown war between Italian City states and German Emperor. City states won and start not only fighting each others but fight for prestige. With that they funded by Intelligent mens whose have creative minds.

The second Black death of 1348 has literally destroyed 35% of europe's total population. But it also allowed the monopoly of old trading families in Italy to be destroyed, and thus to enrich new families start competing with each other. this allows competition and better life and with that creativity.

The third was the crisis in Christianity due to the Avigion exile. This make Catholic Christianity split in two partsand with this, the Pope was able to compete with himself and sponsor science.Also make Philosophic divide and space for New theological questions. also Catholic Christianity was more liberal to Romano-Greek philosophers ať the time and allowed this.

This feels like a dumb question but how do TVs make yellow light? Since yellow is a primary color and can't be made by any other colors.

Could you link the paper? It is hard to know what you are referring to based on this question alone. I'm guessing you are talking about fast or slow afterhyperpolarizations, which are usually mediated by different types of calcium dependent potassium channels with faster or slower kinetics. I suppose you could also be talking about the activation of GABA-A versus GABA-B receptors. GABA-A receptors are ion channels that mediate fast chloride entry into the cell when GABA binds versus GABA-B receptors that are g-protein coupled receptors and act much more slowly.

This isn't much of a poli Sci question because I would expect very differing answers from political scientists, or at least, I wouldn't know how they would answer it.

But to me, it isn't really endless dread. In the situations that what you are describing does happen, we try to study it, make observations on what's happening, find the cause of the issue, and look for solutions.

In fact, I find that the more I study voter behavior, elections, and political power, the less emotionally attached I become to politics. That doesn't mean I'm apathetic, I still care deeply about my political stance. The point is that when I see something I don't like happening in politics, I don't get angry, I become curious and sometimes, even fascinated.

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By deploying one of few counter measures available: revolutionary optimism.

Gotta have that vision that not only can the world be changed for the better, but also having a vision for how this change can happen.

I'm of the Marxist tenancy so my vision of change is a bit more rough and tumble than the Liberal view of change 😂

This might be a silly question, but how does an Economy actually work, in the deepest sense?

I.e. it can't really be a closed system - we can't all just be service workers scrubbing each other's backs. So there must be fundamental inputs into the economy. I can only think of mining, agriculture and energy production which inject "value" into the overall economic system from nothing, and the COMPLETE rest of an economic system is just dedicated to transform these three raw ingredients into "quality-of-life".

Am I missing something? Or are there other fundamental inputs into the overall economic system?

Another factor not mentioned yet is that different types of viruses differ in mutation rate and mechanism of mutation due to biochemical differences in how their genetic material is stored and copied. Viruses with small genomes that mutate quickly, like HIV, can out-evolve vaccines more quickly. And in some viruses, like influenza, recombination allows for populations with new antigens to emerge quickly when multiple strains interact in the same organism (e.g. part of swine or bird flu could recombine with another strain and cause a novel flu strain), so we have to account for this when doing epidemiological predictions for targeting yearly vaccines.

What exactly are the main points "feminist anthropology" and who should I be reading to learn more about it?

I was talking to my sister in law about gender dynamics in hunter/gatherer societies and she told me that much of the conventional wisdom on this (E.g. Men hunt, women gather) had been debunked by feminist anthropology (her words). This conversation was sparked by an observation that my wife and I made that she is way better at finding static objects around the house while am much better at detecting movement. We conjectured that maybe this is a product of gender specializations dating back to the roles of hunter and gatherer.

Thanks in advance!

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theoretically …What are some different ways we could use hydrogen to answer the WOW signal sent to us in the 1970s?

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>(also during all years of mrna development it was never tested on humans)

This is a table with at least a dozen completed human clinical studies for mRNA cancer treatments prior to 2017.

While this is a table of mRNA infectious disease trials, with at least 3 of them completed. Also all prior to 2017.

This is from a journal article published in 2018.