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Similar reason to bubbles forming on the inside of a drinking glass, microscopic textures on the surface of the glass.

For fizzy drinks they provide a place for the gas to escape, for frozen windscreens they form places for the ice to adhere.

There are tree rings that show it, but only from the local region where it happened.
The tree rings outside of that region show no sign of it.

>same system

These systems are much, much bigger than you’re thinking of.

The Hawaiian islands are volcanic islands created by the same “hotspot” plume in the mantle as the overlying plate moved over it. They were created in sequence by volcanic eruptions from that same upwelling. It makes perfect sense for all the islands to be related, so for multiple volcanoes on one island to be related is a no-brainer.

The matching mineral composition and timing of those eruptions indicate they are related. Kīlauea and Mauna Loa’s eruptions are linked to decreases in the other’s activity for a while. Given all the evidence, there’s no need to guess; the volcanoes that make up the island of Hawai’i are linked. It would be far more difficult to adequately explain how they weren’t, if that were true.

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Whatever water the plant doesn't cycle back into the atmosphere gets turned into more plant.

Like... look at a tiny little tree sprout. Now look at a huge tree, hundreds of years old. Huge difference in size, right? Where does all that tree come from?

It's the water that didn't get cycled back. Turned into tree. (Also some other things aside from water, that also got turned into tree.)

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Follow up: how do we know those volcanoes in Hawaii are vents from the same system? Are we sure, or is it an educated guess because they're close enough?

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GPS satellites run on a slightly different clock frequency to compensate the average time dilation. They do smaller adjustments once in a while because clocks on Earth are more precise.

The ISS has GPS satellites in view all the time so it can simply get the time from there.

Don’t the ice cores show levels of atmospheric CO2 which I’d think would be the same globally?? Or are these different cores?

You're not dumb. The only thing you're missing is that acceleration is a change in velocity, not a change in speed.

What does that mean? Picture a car driving down the freeway. The speed is what you see on the dashboard, and the velocity is that plus the direction you're going. Now picture driving around a curve in the freeway. The speed stayed the same, but the velocity changed because you changed direction, and while you were on the curve you felt a sideways force. That force is the result of the acceleration that changed the car's velocity but not its speed.

If that makes sense, now picture a car driving around a circular track. The speed stays the same all the time, but the velocity always changes because the car's direction is always changing. The result is that even though the car isn't speeding up or slowing down, you feel a force - that's acceleration!

To summarize in laymen terms it's more like a pimple squeeze than a balloon deflation (balloon being planet earth).

You aren't physically changing the coppers properties by cutting holes into it though. Why doesn't the field induce many smaller loops of current?

Yep, and in some cases the pressure building from the magma itself and gases is sufficient to push the overlying rocks into a stress regime that's right for tensile failure, so it's not just exploiting existing fractures, but sometimes also making new fractures.

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