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So if we are still in an ice age, then the gradual increase in global temperatures is all part of that.

So where do scientists draw the line between the global warming caused by humans, and the global warming that’s part of the natural cycle of things?

Yeah zinc, magnesium and aluminum are typically used as sacrificial metals for cathodic protection systems which is what a zinc coating acts as. At least from my limited understanding of corrosion.

This video is about an unusual volcano that straddles the border between China and North Korea, and has some really, really good animations drawn from tomography mapping of the plate dynamics around that area:

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=3C2HVOB-g5s

Skip to the ten minute mark, but the whole darn thing was really well put together.

Basically, the plates can either be forced all the ay through to the core, or slip between the mantle and the plate above it.

Well….I routinely tasted it to determine its grit (sand) content in the field (I’m a geologist) …..it tastes like nothing, texture wise it’s like chalk until wet then it’s creamy…I was always tasting such a small amount and always focused on the sand part (rubbing on teeth) …..everything but the most pure stuff will have a sand content so eating raw kaolin will be unpleasant honestly

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Thanks again for your excellent reply!

>No, you can't estimate heritability that way, because this can't distinguish between genetic and environmental transmission of traits.

What do you mean by environmental transmission of traits?

Parent-offspring regression is definitely one way to estimate heritability. It has flaws and biases, but no more than estimates derived from twin-studies, which tend to overestimate narrow-sense heritability.

Really important context, thank you for this clarification

Correct. Lungs evolved completely separately from gills. Our ancestors repurposed gills into inner ears, the cartilage of the trachea, and the hyoid bone, all structures still around our jaws/throat.

(Technically, our even earlier ancestors repurposed parts of their gills into the first jaws, too.)

Early in embryonic development, however, our gill arches and their major blood vessels still appear…and the recurrent laryngeal nerve grows out to that embryonic gill tissue. Later in development, the “gills” stay basically in place and become those other structures in the ear and throat. So instead of innervating gills, the nerve is now innervating…all the things we repurposed our gills into.

>Lowered sea levels had caused England to have more landmass

My understanding is the entire North Sea was basically dry land (Doggerland) during the last ice age, with the Thames joining the Rhine as it flowed down what is now the English Channel to the Atlantic. Apparently fishermen in the North Sea occasionally dig up terrestrial animal bones and the like from time to time.

As I understand, it's rarely snowing because it doesn't evaporate. Off cause a little bit of water vapor will also come from the outside and - because cold air can't contain it - fall down sooner or later. In the other direction there are glaciers transporting the snow / ice back to the ocean.

I’ve always heard that the zinc on galvanized steels is a sacrificial coating, so you basically expect it to fail in the long run.

A dessert is defined as a place where there is less than 25 cm of precipitation per year, so yes, Antarctica is considered a desert.

There are many other regions that fit this description that are very cold.

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Loved your answer! Concise, easy to understand! And then at the end you go full ham and use "would of" instead of "would have". Twice! :D

Never knew that. Thanks!

Thanks for your excellent reply!

Coincidentally, the paper you cited also explained how isolated situs inversus may form; I'm really grateful you posted the link.

Feel free to correct my understanding: As my understanding, lung did not evolve from gill; rather, it's a structure unrelated to gill and innervated differently and recurrent laryngeal nerve then repurposed to innervate various structures on mammalian neck instead.

Thanks you. I love this topic. Op had good questions and you had answers a layperson could understand.

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The one thing I've never understood is, isn't Antarctica considered a desert because of complete lack of snowfall / precipitation. I've always wondered how anything builds up unless it's incredibly slow.

The D” (D double prime) layer, the lowermost zone of the mantle, was describe to me in grad school as the “subducting slab graveyard”. This layer was also hypothesized to insulate the core enough to cause heat anomalies large enough to create break thru hotspots in some places that give rise to features like the Hawaiian or Yellowstone hotspots.